Freedom of expression in multicultural societies: Political cartooning in Europe in the modern and postmodern eras | Intellect Skip to content
1981
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Empedocles: European Journal for the Philosophy of Communication
  4. Volume 10, Issue 2
  5. Article
Volume 10, Issue 2
  • ISSN: 1757-1952
  • E-ISSN: 1757-1960

Abstract

Abstract

At the intersection of modern cultural and political history, security studies and debates about freedom of expression and international human-rights law, this article aims to contribute to a better understanding of political cartooning and its implications in multicultural societies of Europe, which have shifted in a geographical, cultural, normative, communicational, political and many other respects through the last two centuries. Through comparison of the Serbian cartoons from late nineteenth-century Croatia and the recent Danish cartoons of the Prophet Mohammad, the article reveals that both modern and postmodern European cartoons have been centred around equally discriminatory narratives: a 'clash of civilizations' and 'racialization of religion'. Since open racial stereotyping in cartoons became illegal in the postmodern international regulations, traditional discriminatory practices of cartooning have shifted towards subtle, 'liquid' racism. This decodes some of the twelve Danish cartoons as ambiguous strategies of racialization of Muslim immigrants in Europe (as 'terrorists' and 'others') but also as hate speech which is illegal in the European Union, and member states of the Council of Europe. The author concludes that the most current European and international regulations of hate speech, whether concerning offline media or online media, actually protect free speech. While a truly clear-cut regulation of liquid racism might remain problematic in Europe (and the world) due to the lack of a universally accepted definition of hate speech, neither strict legal regulations nor different definitions of hate speech could diminish the role of political cartooning as a viable free speech platform in the multicultural landscape of Europe. Ultimately, what diminishes its viability is the enduring lack of diversity in the creation of visual satire, which could and should reflect the multicultural reality of communities, politics and societies in Europe.

© Intellect Ltd
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1386/ejpc_00005_1
2019-11-01
2024-04-25
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Alkiviadou, Natalie. (2019);, 'Hate speech on social media networks: Towards a regulatory framework?'. , Information and Communications Technology Law, 28:1, 19-35.
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Anon. (1897a);, (No title). , Vrač Pogađač, 2: 7, 15 April , p. 79.
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Anon. (1897b);, (No title). , Vrač Pogađač, 2: 19, 15 October , p. 225.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Anon. (1899);, (No title). , Vrač Pogađač, 4:17, 1 September , p. 136.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Anon. (1901);, 'Uteče im pečenica!'. , Vrač Pogađač, 6: 24, 16 December, cover page .
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Anon. (1902);, (No title). , Vrač Pogađač, 7:14, 16 July, cover page .
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Agius, Christine. (2013);, 'Performing identity: The Danish carton crisis and discourses of identity and security'. , Security Dialogue, 44:3, pp. 241-58.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Artuković, Mato. (1991);, '"Vrač Pogađač" – prilog proučavanju srpskog novinstva u Hrvatskoj'. , Povijesni prilozi, 10:1, pp. 157-92.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Bal, Anjali Suniti,, Pitt, Leyland,, Berthon, Pierre, and DesAutels, Philip. (2009);, 'Caricatures, cartoons, spoofs and satires: Political brands as butts'. , Journal of Public Affairs, 9:4, pp. 229-37.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Becher, Peter, and Džambo, Jozo. (eds) (1997), Gleiche Bilder, gleiche Worte: Deutsche, Österreicher und Tschechen in der Karikatur (1848-1948): Ausstellungskatalog = Stejné obrazy, stejná slove: Němci, Rakušané a Češi v karikatuře (1848-1948): Katalog výstavy/(Herausgeber, Peter Becher, Jozo Džambo), München:: Adalbert Stifter Verein;.
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Bleich, Erik. (2012);, 'Free speech or hate speech? Danish cartoon controversy in the European legal context'. , in K. R. Khory. (ed.), Global Migration: Challenges in the Twenty-First Century, New York:: Palgrave Macmillan;, pp. 113-28.
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Bleiker, Roland. (2001);, 'The aesthetic turn in international political theory'. , Millenium: Journal of International Studies, 30:3, pp. 509-33.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Bleiker, Roland. (2017);, 'In search of thinking space: Reflections on the aesthetic turn in international political theory'. , Millenium: Journal of International Studies, 45:2, pp. 258-64.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Boon, Jean Pierre,, Casti, John, and Taylor, Richard P.. (2010);, 'Artistic forms and complexity', Semantic Scholar. , 7 September, https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b1d2/a855874aff021b8a09651893f5d8c2df8850.pdf. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
  15. Bottici, Chiara, and Challand, Benoît. (2006);, 'Rethinking political myth: The clash of civilization as a self-fulfilling prophecy'. , European Journal of Social Theory, 9:3, pp. 315-36.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Bottici, Chiara, and Challand, Benoît. (2010), The Myth of the Clash of Civilizations, New York:: Routledge;.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Cartooning for Peace (2019);, 'Presentation', Cartooning for Peace. , https://www.cartooningforpeace.org/the-foundation-geneva/presentation/?lang=en. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
  18. Colombo, Valentina. (2013);, 'Political Islam and Islam in politics in Europe'. , European View, 12:1, pp. 143-251.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Dodds, Klaus. (2007);, 'Steve Bell's eye: Cartoons, geopolitics and the visualization of the "War on Terror"'. , Security Dialogue, 38:2, pp. 157-77.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Doerr, Nicole. (2017);, 'Bridging language barriers, bonding against immigrants: A visual case study of transnational network publics created by far-right activists in Europe'. , Discourse & Society, 28:1, pp. 3-22.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. El Refaie, Elisabeth. (2003);, 'Understanding visual metaphor: The example of newspaper cartoons'. , Visual Communication, 2:1, pp. 75-95.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Emmerson, Donald K.. (2010);, 'Broadening representation'. , in R. C. Martin, and A. Barzegar. (eds), Islamism: Contested Perspectives on Political Islam, Stanford:: Stanford University Press;, pp. 133-47.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Ettmüller, Eliane Ursula. (2012);, 'Caricature and Egypt's revolution of 25 January 2011. ', Zeithistorische Forschungen (Studies in Contemporary History), 9:1, pp. 138-48, http://www.zeithistorische-forschungen.de/1-2012/id=4469. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
     [Google Scholar]
  24. European Commission (2016);, 'The EU Code of conduct on countering illegal hate speech online', Code of conduct on countering illegal hate speech online. , 30 June, https://ec.europa.eu/info/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/combatting-discrimination/racism-and-xenophobia/countering-illegal-hate-speech-online_en#theeucodeofconduct. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
  25. European Commission (2019);, 'European civil protection and humanitarian aid operations', Forced displacement: Refugees, asylum-seekers and internally displaced people (IDPs). , 19 June, https://ec.europa.eu/echo/refugee-crisis. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
  26. Fierke, Karin Marie. (2015), Critical Approaches to International Security, Cambridge:: Polity Press;.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Greenberg, Josh. (2002);, 'Framing and temporality in political cartoons: A critical analysis of visual news discourse'. , The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 39:2, pp. 181-98.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Hansen, Ejvind. (2016);, 'Media freedom as a fundamental right, Jan Oster (2015)'. , Empedocles: European Journal for the Philosophy of Communication, 7:1, pp. 99-102.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Hansen, Lene. (2011a); ' The politics of securitization and the Muhammad cartoon crisis: A post-structuralist perspective. ', Security Dialogue, 42:4&5, pp. 357-69.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Hansen, Ejvind. (2011b);, 'Theorizing the image for Security Studies: Visual securitization and the Muhammad Cartoon Crisis'. , European Journal of International Relations, 17:1, pp. 51-74.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Harris, Miriam. (2017);, 'Political cartoons in 2017: Chris Riddell, Rebecca Hendin and Dave Brown on what it's like to create satiric art in a digital world'. , Digital Arts, 21 November, https://www.digitalartsonline.co.uk/features/illustration/political-cartoons-in-2017-chris-riddell-rebecca-hendin-dave-brown-on-what-its-like-create-satirical-art-in-digital-world/. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Huntington, Samuel P.. (1993);, 'The clash of civilizations?'. , Foreign Affairs, 72:3, pp. 22-49.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Johnson, Isabel Simeral. (1937);, 'Cartoons'. , The Public Opinion Quarterly, 1:3, pp. 21-44.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Johnston, Chris. (2015);, 'One dead and three injured in Copenhagen "terrorist attack"'. , The Guardian, 14 February, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/14/copenhagen-blasphemy-lars-vilks-prophet-muhammad-krudttonden-cafe. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Jourová, Věra. (2019);, 'The EU Code of conduct on countering illegal hate speech online'. , European Commission, Factsheet – How the Code of Conduct helped countering illegal hate speech online, 4 February, https://ec.europa.eu/info/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/combatting-discrimination/racism-and-xenophobia/countering-illegal-hate-speech-online_en#theeucodeofconduct. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Kaser, Karl. (1997), Slobodan seljak i vojnik: Povojačeno društvo (1754-1881.), vol. II, Zagreb:: Naprijed;.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Keane, David. (2008);, 'Cartoon violence and freedom of expression'. , Human Rights Quarterly, 30:4, pp. 845-75.
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Kepel, Gilles. (2000);, 'Islamism reconsidered'. , Harvard International Review, 22:2, pp. 22-27.
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Khatib, Lina. (2003);, 'Communicating Islamic fundamentalism as global citizenship'. , Journal of Communication Inquiry, 27:4, pp. 389-409.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Kingston, Paul. (1999);, 'Contextualizing Islamic fundamentalism'. , International Journal, 54:4, pp. 695-704.
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Kuipers, Giselinde. (2011);, 'The politics of humour in the public sphere: Cartoons, power and modernity in the first transnational humour scandal'. , European Journal of Cultural Studies, 14:1, pp. 63-80.
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Lentin, Alana. (2008), Racism: A Beginner's Guide, London:: Oneworld Publications;.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Lentin, Alana. (2011);, 'Imagining the west, perceiving race: Social sciences and political imagination'. , in C. Bottici, and B. Challand. (eds), The Politics of Imagination, Oxford:: Birkbeck Law Press;, pp. 109-23.
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Lindekilde, Lasse,, Mouritsen, Per, and Zapata-Barrero, Ricard. (2009);, 'The Muhammad cartoons controversy in comparative perspective'. , Ethnicities, 9:3, pp. 291-313.
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Malik, Avy. (2006);, 'The ethical responsibility of political cartooning'. , UN Chronicle, 44:4, pp. 71-73.
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Martin, Richard C., and Barzegar, Abbas. (eds) (2010), Islamism: Contested Perspectives on Political Islam, Stanford:: Stanford University Press;.
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Miller, Brian. (2017);, 'There's no need to compel speech. The marketplace of ideas is working'. , Forbes, 4 December, https://www.forbes.com/sites/briankmiller/2017/12/04/theres-no-need-to-compel-speech-the-marketplace-of-ideas-is-working/#1809fedd4e68. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Plum, Angelika. (1998), Die Karikatur in Spannungsfeld von Kunstgeschichte und Politikwissenschaft: Eine ikonologische Untersuchung zu Feindbildern in Karikaturen, Aachen:: Shaker Verlag;.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Rabasa, Angel. (2010);, 'Ideology, not religion'. , in R. C. Martin, and A. Barzegar. (eds), Islamism: Contested Perspectives on Political Islam, Stanford:: Stanford University Press;, pp. 110-15.
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Ramadan, Tariq. (2015);, 'The Paris attackers hijacked Islam but there is no war between Islam and the west'. , The Guardian, 9 January, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jan/09/paris-hijackers-hijacked-islam-no-war-between-islam-west. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Rumenjak, Nives. (2005), Politička i društvena elita Srba u Hrvatskoj potkraj 19. stoljeća: Uspon i pad Srpskoga kluba, Zagreb:: Hrvatski institut za povijest;.
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Sardar, Ziauddin. (2006);, 'A "freedom" whose home is the jungle: This is an issue of power, domination and demonization'. , The Independent, 5 February, https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/ziauddin-sardar-a-freedom-whose-home-is-the-jungle-343245.html. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Scharp, Gwen. (2008);, 'Negative stereotypes of the Irish', The Society Pages. , 6 October, http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2008/10/06/negative-stereotypes-of-the-irish/. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
  54. Streicher, Lawrence H.. (1967);, 'On a theory of political caricature'. , Comparative Studies in Society and History, 9:4, pp. 427-45.
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Sturges, Paul. (2006); 'Limits to freedom of expression? Considerations arising from the Danish cartoons affair'. , IFLA Journal, 32:3, pp. 181-88.
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Terblanche, Nic S.. (2011);, 'You cannot run or hide from social media – ask a politician'. , Journal of Public Affairs, 11:3, pp. 156-67.
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Tibi, Bassam. (2010);, 'The return of ethnicity to Europe via Islamic migration? The ethnicization of the Islamic diaspora'. , in: R. Hsu. (ed.), Ethnic Europe: Mobility, Identity, and Conflict in a Globalized World, Stanford:: Stanford University Press;, pp. 127-56.
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Tønder, Lars. (2011);, 'Freedom of expression in an age of cartoon wars'. , Contemporary Political Theory, 10:2, pp. 255-72.
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Wachtel, Andrew Baruch. (2008), The Balkans in World History, New York:: Oxford University Press;.
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Weaver, Simon. (2010);, 'Liquid racism and the Danish Prophet Muhammad cartoons'. , Current Sociology, 58:5, pp. 675-92.
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Wikipedia (2019);, 'Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy'. , Wikipedia, 7 November, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_controversy. Accessed 10 November 2019 .
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Williams, Michael C.. (2003);, 'Words, images, enemies: Securitization and international politics'. , International Studies Quarterly, 47:4, pp. 511-31.
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Wohl, Anthony S.. (1990);, 'Victorian racism'. , Victorian Web, http://www.victorianweb.org/victorian/history/race/rc5.html. Accessed 27 September 2019 .
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Rumenjak, N.. (2019);, 'Freedom of expression in multicultural societies: Political cartooning in Europe in the modern and postmodern eras'. , Empedocles: European Journal for the Philosophy of Communication, 10:2, pp. 167-89, doi: 10.1386/ejpc_00005_1
     [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journals/10.1386/ejpc_00005_1
Loading
Freedom of expression in multicultural societies: Political cartooning in Europe in the modern and postmodern eras
Empedocles: European Journal for the Philosophy of Communication 10, 167 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1386/ejpc_00005_1
/content/journals/10.1386/ejpc_00005_1
/content/journals/10.1386/ejpc_00005_1
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Article
Keyword(s): ethically responsible political cartooning; freedom of expression; liquid racism; online hate speech regulations; the 'clash of civilization' concept; the 'Muhammad cartoon crisis'

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a success
Invalid data
An error occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error